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- Essay Name : 1345.txt
- Uploader : Afshen
- Email Address :
- Language : Basic not to much detail
- Subject : Biology
- Title : Morality and the Human Genome Project
- Grade : 82%
- School System : Community College
- Country : USA
- Author Comments : Basic paper for use in Human Reproduction classes
- Teacher Comments : Very interesting angle
- Date : 11/96
- Site found at : Needed a paper
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- Morality and the Human Genome Project
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- Bibliography
- Congress of the United States, Office of Technology Assessment, Mapping Our
- Genes: Genome Projects: How Big, How Fast?, Johns Hopkins University
- Press: Baltimore,1988.
- Gert, Bernard, Morality and the New Genetics: A Guide for Students and Health
- Care Providers, Jones and Bartlett: Sudbury, Massachusetts,1996.
- Lee, Thomas F., The Human Genome Project: Cracking the Genetic Code of Life,
- Plenum Press: New York, 1991.
- Murphy, Timothy F., and Lappe, Marc, ed., Justice and the Human Genome
- Project, University of California Press: Berkeley, 1994.
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- Does the Human Genome Project affect the moral standards of society?
- Can the information produced by it become a beneficial asset or a moral evil?
- For example, in a genetic race or class distinction the use of the X chromosome
- markers can be used for the identification of a persons ethnicity or class
- (Murphy,34). A seemingly harmless collection of information from the
- advancement of the Human Genome Project. But, lets assume this information is
- used to explore ways to deny entry into countries, determine social class, or even
- who gets preferential treatment. Can the outcome of this information effect the
- moral standards of a society?
- The answers to the above and many other questions are relative to the
- issues facing the Human Genome Project. To better understand these topics a
- careful dissection of the terminology must be made. Websters Dictionary defines
- morality as ethics, upright conduct, conduct or attitude judged from the moral
- standpoint. It also defines a moral as concerned with right and wrong and the
- distinctions between them. A Genome is "the total of an individuals genetic
- material," including, "that part of the cell that controls heredity" (Lee,4).
- Subsequently, "reasearch and technology efforts aimed at mapping and
- sequencing large portions or entire genomes are called genome projects"
- (Congress,4). Genome projects are not a single organizations efforts, but instead
- a group of organizations working in government and private industry through
- out the world. Furthermore, the controversies surrounding the Human Genome
- Project can be better explained by the past events leading to the project, the
- structure of the project, and the moral discussion of the project.
- The major events of genetic history are important to the Human Genome
- Project because the structure and most of the project deals with genetics.
- Genetics is the study of the patterns of inheritance of specific traits
- (Congress,202). The basic beginnings of genetic history lay in the ancient
- techniques of selective breeding to yield special characteristics in later
- generations. This was and still is a form of genetic manipulation by "employing
- appropriate selection for physical and behavioral traits" (Gert,2). Futheralong,
- the work of Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, on garden peas established the
- quantitative discipline of genetics. Mendel's work explained the inheritance of
- traits can be stated by factors passed from one generation to the next; a gene.
- The complete set of genes for an organism is called it's genome (Congress,3).
- These traits can be explained due to the inheritance of single or multiple genes
- affected by factors in the environment (3). Mendel also correctly stated that two
- copies of every factor exists and that one factor of inheritance could be dominate
- over another (Gert,3).The next major events of genetic history involved DNA
- (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA, as a part of genes, was discovered to be a double
- helix that encodes the blueprints for all living things (Congress,3). DNA was
- found to be packed into chromosomes, of which 23 pairs existed in each cell of
- the human body. Furthermore, one chromosome of each pair is donated from
- each parent. DNA was also found to be made of nucleotide chains made of four
- bases, commonly represented by A, C, T, and G. Any ordered pair of bases
- makes a sequence. These sequences are the instructions that produce molecules,
- proteins, for cellular structure and biochemical functions. In relation, a marker
- is any location on a chromosome where inheritance can be identified and tracked
- (202). Markers can be expressed areas of genes (DNA) or some segment of DNA
- with no known coding function but an inheritance could be traced (3). It is these
- markers that are used to do genetic mapping. By the use of genetic mapping
- isolated areas of DNA are used to find if a person has a specific trait, inherent
- factor, or any other numerous genetic information. In conclusion, the genetic
- history of ancient selective breeding to Mendel's garden peas to the current
- isolation of genes has been reached only through collaborative data of many
- organizations and scientist.
- The Human Genome Project has several objectives. To better understand
- the moral issues that exist the project itself must be examined. Among the many
- objectives, DNA databases that include sequences, location markers, genes, and
- the function of similar genes (Congress,7). The creation of human chromosome
- maps for DNA markers that would allow the location of genes to be found. A
- repository of research materials including ordered sets of DNA fragments
- representing the complete DNA in chromosomes. New instruments for analysis
- of DNA. New methods of analysis of DNA through chemical, physical, and
- computational methods. Develop similar research technologies for other
- organisms. Finally, to determine the DNA sequence of a large fraction of the
- human genome and other organisms. The objectives of the Human Genome
- Project are carried out by organizations such as the Department of Energy,
- National Institutes of Health, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and various
- private organizations. These organizations all have two shared features, placing
- "new methods and instruments into toolkit of molecular biology" and "build
- reasearch infrastructure for genetics." Making the directives of the Human
- Genome Project apparent is important in making a moral judgment on this
- genetic technology.
- Any attempt to resolve moral issues involving new information from the
- Human Genome Project requires direct, clear, and total understanding of
- common morality. Subsequently, a moral theory is the attempt to explain,
- justify, and make visible "the moral system that people use in making their
- moral judgments and how to act when confronting a moral problem" (Gert,31).
- This theory is based on rational decisions. With this in mind, the moral system
- must be known by everyone who is judged by it. This leads to the rational
- statement that "morality must be a public system" (33). The individuals of the
- public system must know what morality requires of them, and the judgments
- and guidelines made must be rational to them. Just like any game, the players
- play by a set of rules and these rules dictate how play is done. The game is
- played only when everyone knows how to play. When rules are broken
- penalties are inforced by the other players judgment according to the rules
- allowed. However, if everyone agrees to change the rules then the game
- continues without any penalties. Therefore, "the goal of common morality is to
- lessen the amount of harm suffered by those protected by it" and it is
- constrained by the knowledge and need to be understood by all it applies to (47).
- Justified violations also exist in common morality. Just like in the game, a
- change in the rules causes acceptance, morality can be viewed not as an evil by
- the public perception but as a decision backed by common morals.
- Based on the pattern of common morality the issues of genetic race or
- class distinction or any other controversies involving the Human Genome Project
- can be put to a set of common moral standards. Just like the moral standard that
- says killing is wrong but killing is justifiable in self-defense, the Human Genome
- Project can be argued along the same pattern of moral discussion.
- The justifiable violations that genetic information is based on depends on the
- common morality which is based on the public system which is based on the
- decisions of right and wrong. In conclusion, the moral dilemma of genetics is
- that will it be an asset to the individuals public perception of common morality
- or will it be an evil to the individuals public perception of common morality
- based on the right and wrong of the information. This answer is based on the
- societies structure. In one time period it may be accepted in another in may not.
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